Present Perfect

Describes an action that happened at an unspecified time in the past and has relevance to the present.

Sentence Construction:

Aff: SP + has/have + main verb (past participle) + complement.

E.g.: They have (They’ve) eaten my meal.

Neg: SP + has/have + not (hasn’t/ haven’t) + main verb (past participle) + complement.

E.g.: They have not (haven’t) eaten my meal.

Int: Has/Have + SP + main verb (past participle) + complement?

E.g.: Have they eaten my meal?

Comparison with Simple Past:

Present Perfect: Focuses on the relevance to the present.

E.g.: I have studied engineering at USP. (Past event, important now).

Simple Past: Focuses on a specific time in the past.

E.g.: I studied engineering at USP. (Past event, no present relevance).

Special Case: Been vs. Gone:

Has/Have been: The person has returned.

E.g.: She has been to Paris. (She is back).

Has/Have gone: The person has not returned.

E.g.: She has gone to Paris. (She is still in Paris).

Present Perfect with Since and For

With Since: Marks the beginning of an activity at a specific point in time, indicating the activity still happens in the present.

E.g.: Ted hasn’t smoked since 2010.

With For: Refers to the duration of an activity, which may or may not still be happening in the present.

E.g.: I haven’t seen my brother for weeks.

Important Tips:

- Since is used with a specific point in time (e.g.: since 2010, since last Monday).

- For is used with a period of time (e.g.: for 2 hours, for a long time).

Present Perfect And Adverbs of Time

The Present Perfect is often used with adverbs of time because these adverbs help specify the timing, duration, or frequency of actions that have relevance to the present moment.

Adverbs of Time and their uses:

Already: Indicates that something happened earlier than expected.

E.g.: The show has already started.

Always: Expresses a permanent or regularly repeated action.

E.g.: I have always loved chocolate.

Ever: Used mainly in questions to mean “at least once in life”.

E.g.: Have you ever seen a ghost?

Just: Indicates an action that happened a moment ago.

E.g.: I’ve just had dinner.

Never: Functions as a negative, meaning “not once in life.

E.g.: We have never seen a kangaroo.

Still: Indicates an action that hasn’t finished or is lasting longer than expected.

E.g.: I still haven’t made any plans for my next vacation.

Yet: Indicates something hasn’t happened yet but will in the near future.

E.g.: Tommy has not received a raise yet.

Present Perfect Continuous

É um tempo verbal usado para expressar ações que começaram no passado e continuam ou têm relevância no presente. Diferentemente do “Present Perfect”, o foco está na duração da ação.

Sentence Construction:

Aff.: SP + has/have + been + main verb (ing) + complement.

E.g.: They have been waiting for your call.

Neg.: SP + has/have + not (hasn’t/haven’t) + been + main verb (ing) + complement.

E.g.: They haven’t been waiting for your call.

Int.: Has/Have + SP + been + main verb (ing) + complement?

E.g.: Have they been waiting for your call?

Comparison with Present Perfect:

Present Perfect: Foco no resultado da ação.

E.g.: I have washed the car.

Importante: O carro está limpo agora.

Present Perfect Continuous: Foco na duração da ação.

E.g.: I have been washing the car.

Importante: Quanto tempo a ação levou.

Relative Pronouns - Who / That / Which / Whose / Where / Whom / When

Eles são usados para conectar duas frases relacionadas, evitando redundâncias. Podem atuar como sujeito ou objeto na frase e o pronome relativo usado depende do que ele se refere (pessoa, lugar, posse, etc.).

Who: Refere-se a pessoas (sujeito).

E.g.: My brother, who lives in Colorado, is coming next week.

Which: Refere-se a coisas.

E.g.: I bought some supplements which my personal trainer recommended.

That: Pode se referir a pessoas ou coisas, especialmente em cláusulas definidoras.

E.g.: I think I know your sister that is a dentist.

Whose: Refere-se à posse.

E.g.: Jerry married Kate, whose parents don’t like him.

Where: Refere-se a lugar.

E.g.: He’s going to live in China where he met his future wife.

Whom: Refere-se a pessoas (objeto).

E.g.: The reviews about this new manager, whom we have been meeting a lot, are really positive.

When: Refere-se a tempo.

E.g.: Tommy left his job last month when he moved to another country.

Special Considerations:

Defining vs. Non-Defining Clauses: Use “that” em cláusulas definidoras (sem vírgulas) e “who/which” em cláusulas não definidoras (com vírgulas).

Defining: My sister that/who lives in Canada came to see me last month.

Non-Defining: My sister, who is a nurse, married my best friend.

Superlatives and Determiners: Use “that” após superlativos e determinadores como all, same, only.

E.g.: This is the best book that was ever written about World War II.

Future Continuous

Esse tempo verbal é usado para se referir a ações ou eventos temporários que estarão em andamento em algum determinado momento no futuro.

Sentence Construction:

Aff.: SP + will + be + main verb (ing) + complement.

E.g.: Ted will be running a marathon next Saturday.

Neg.: SP + will + not (won’t) + be + main verb (ing) + complement.

E.g.: Ted won’t be running a marathon next Saturday.

Int.: Will + SP + be + main verb (ing) + complement?

E.g.: Will Ted be running a marathon next Saturday?

Paired Conjunctions

As “Paired Conjunctions” são usadas para adicionar informações, dar ou negar opções, expressar contradição ou dúvida em uma frase.

Types of Paired Conjunctions:

1. Add Information:

Not only...but also...: Para adicionar informações, concordando o verbo com o último sujeito.

E.g.: Not only my dogs but also my cat IS hungry.

Both...and...: Para indicar equivalência, concordando o verbo com ambos os sujeitos.

E.g.: Both Antonio and Susan are waiting for the cab.

2. Add or Deny Both Options:

Either...or...: Use: Para oferecer opções.

E.g.: I’ll use my bonus either to buy a boat or to buy a new car.

Neither...nor...: Para negar ambas as opções.

E.g.: I want to eat neither the chicken nor the salad.

3. Express Contradiction:

Not...but...: Para expressar contradição, negando a primeira opção e enfatizando a segunda.

E.g.: He is not happy but thrilled.

4. Express Doubt:

Whether...or...: Para expressar dúvida entre duas opções possíveis, similar a “if”.

E.g.: I don’t know whether the white paint or the green paint is better.

Modal Verbs + Perfect Infinitive

Essa estrutura é essencial para expressar deduções, possibilidades, deveres não cumpridos, e ações desejadas que não aconteceram no passado.

Sentence Construction:

Aff.: SP + modal verb + have + main verb (p.p.) + complement.

Neg.: SP + modal verb + have + not + main verb (p.p.) + complement.

Int.: Modal verb + SP + have + main verb (p.p.) + complement?

1. Must + Perfect Infinitive: Expressa uma dedução sobre uma ação passada.

E.g.: Someone must have forgotten something.

2. Can’t + Perfect Infinitive: Descreve uma dedução que te deixa quase certo de que algo não aconteceu no passado.

E.g.: Peter can’t have left work yet.

3. Should + Perfect Infinitive: Expressa a ideia de que algo era desejável ou necessário, mas não aconteceu.

E.g.: You should have called me right after the accident.

4. Shouldn’t + Perfect Infinitive: Usado quando alguém fez algo no passado que não era uma boa ideia.

E.g.: Kelly shouldn’t have used that dress at the wedding party.

5. Ought To + Perfect Infinitive: Expressa um dever ou obrigação não cumprida.

E.g.: Ken ought to have helped his sister.

6. May + Perfect Infinitive: Expressa uma forte possibilidade de que algo aconteceu no passado.

E.g.: She may have missed the plane.

7. Might + Perfect Infinitive: Expressa uma possibilidade remota de que algo aconteceu no passado.

E.g.: One of the drivers might have changed lanes.

8. Could + Perfect Infinitive: Expressa algo que não foi realizado no passado.

E.g.: She could have gone to the doctor.

Obs.: O “Would + Perfect Infinitive” será estudado em uma lição específica sobre “Conditionals” ou “If Clauses”.

Past Perfect

Esse tempo verbal é utilizado para falar de uma ação no passado que ocorreu antes de outra ação também no passado.

Sentence Construction:

Aff.: SP + had + main verb (p.p.) + complement.

E.g.: Tyler had met your sister before the meeting.

Neg.: SP + had + not (hadn’t) + main verb (p.p.) + complement.

E.g.: Tyler hadn’t met your sister before the meeting.

Int.: Had + SP + main verb (p.p) + complement?

E.g.: Had Tyler met your sister before the meeting?

Obs.: O Past Perfect é considerado uma estrutura gramatical formal, sendo mais comum em textos escritos. Embora seu uso em conversas cotidianas não esteja errado, ele pode soar um pouco estranho devido à sua formalidade.

Past Perfect Continuous

Esse tempo verbal é utilizado para descrever uma ação que estava em andamento no passado antes de outra ação também no passado. A ação que estava em andamento é expressa com “had been + main verb (ing)”.

Sentence Construction:

Aff.: SP + had + been + main verb (ing) + complement.

E.g.: Violet had been waiting at the parking lot for two hours when her husband finally arrived.

Neg.: SP + had + not (hadn’t) + been + main verb (ing) + complement.

E.g.: Violet hadn’t been waiting at the parking lot for two hours when her husband finally arrived.

Int.: Had + SP + been + main verb (ing) + complement?

E.g.: Had Violet been waiting at the parking lot for two hours when her husband finally arrived?

Future Perfect

Este tempo verbal é usado para indicar que uma ação será concluída em algum momento no futuro antes de uma segunda ação começar no futuro.

Sentence Construction:

Aff.: SP + will + have + main verb (p.p.) + complement.

E.g.: Tim will have finished his report by the end of the week.

Neg.: SP + will + not (won’t) + have + main verb (p.p.) + complement.

E.g.: Tim will not have finished his report by the end of the week.

Int.: Will + SP + have + main verb (p.p.) + complement?

E.g.: Will Tim have finished his report by the end of the week?

Future Perfect Continuous

Este tempo verbal é usado para descrever uma ação contínua que pode ter começado no passado, presente ou futuro e que será interrompida por outra ação no futuro.

Sentence Construction:

Aff.: SP + will + have + been + main verb (ing) + complement.

E.g.: Rose will have been playing drums for twenty years when she turns thirty.

Neg.: SP + will + not (won’t) + have + been + main verb (ing) + complement.

E.g.: Rose will not have been playing drums for twenty years when she turns thirty.

Int.: Will + SP + have + been + main verb (ing) + complement?

E.g.: Will Rose have been playing drums for twenty years when she turns thirty?

Conditionals

São estruturas gramaticais que descrevem o resultado de algo que pode acontecer no presente ou futuro, ou que poderia ter acontecido no passado, mas não aconteceu.

Elas geralmente são formadas por duas partes principais: uma “If Clause” (cláusula condicional) e uma “Main Clause” (cláusula principal).

Tipos de Conditionals:

Conditional Zero: Descreve resultados que sempre acontecem ou são fatos.

Sentence Construction: If clause (simple present)…Main clause (simple present).

E.g.: If you heat ice, it melts.

First Conditional: Fala sobre coisas que podem acontecer no futuro.

Sentence Construction: If clause (simple present)…Main clause (will/can/may + verb [infinitive]).

E.g.: If it’s sunny tomorrow, I may go to the beach.

Second Conditional: Fala sobre situações no presente ou futuro que são improváveis, imaginárias, hipotéticas ou impossíveis.

Sentence Construction: If clause (simple past)…Main clause (would/could + verb [infinitive]).

E.g.: If we were rich, we would travel all over the world.

Third Conditional: Expressa o possível resultado de uma ação ou situação que não aconteceu no passado.

Sentence Construction: If clause (past perfect)…Main clause (would/could/might + have + verb [p.p.]).

E.g.: If my brother had worked more, he could have saved more money.

Passive Voice

Essa estrutura é usada para mudar o foco de quem executa a ação do verbo (o sujeito) para a própria ação. Ela é frequentemente usada quando o sujeito não é importante, não é conhecido ou quando não queremos especificar quem ele é.

Sentence Construction:

Subject (object in the active voice) + auxiliary verb (if there is one in the active voice) + verb to be (in the same conjugation of the main verb in the active voice) + main verb (p.p.) + by agent (subject in the active voice optional).

Example Transformations:

Simple Present:

Active: Tim writes many letters.

Passive: Many letters are written (by Tim).

Present Continuous:

Active: Tim is writing many letters.

Passive: Many letters are being written (by Tim).

Simple Past:

Active: Tim wrote many letters.

Passive: Many letters were written (by Tim).

Modal Verb (Will):

Active: Tim will write many letters.

Passive: Many letters will be written (by Tim).

Present Perfect:

Active: Tim has written many letters.

Passive: Many letters have been written (by Tim).

Obs.: O agente (by Tim) é opcional e pode ser omitido se não for importante especificar quem realizou a ação.

Reported Speech

Ele é usado para relatar a terceiros o que foi dito a ou por você. Quem relata frequentemente parafraseia as palavras originais, mudando as formas verbais, pronomes e expressões temporais.

Sentence Construction (genérica): Reporting Clause (with or without a conjunction) + Reported Statement.

Mudanças Comuns de Tempos Verbais:

1. Simple Present → Simple Past

Direct: I like coffee.

Reported: He said (that) he liked coffee.

2. Present Continuous → Past Continuous

Direct: I am living in California.

Reported: He said (that) he was living in California.

3. Simple Past → Simple Past ou Past Perfect

Direct: I went to the doctor.

Reported: He said (that) he went to the doctor ou He said (that) he had gone to the doctor.

Mudanças de Modal Verbs:

1. Will → Would

Direct: I will study hard.

Reported: He said (that) he would study hard.

2. Can → Could

Direct: I can see very well at night.

Reported: He said (that) he could see very well at night.

3. May → Might

Direct: I may travel alone.

Reported: He said (that) he might travel alone.

Obs.: Se o que você está relatando ainda for verdadeiro ou relevante, nem sempre é necessário mudar o tempo verbal.

E.g.:

Direct: I have broken my arm!

Reported: Helen said she has broken her arm, so she won’t be at work this week.

Reporting Questions

É usado para relatar perguntas feitas por alguém, adaptando a estrutura da pergunta original para um discurso indireto.

Formas de Reportar Perguntas:

1. Yes/No Questions: Use “If” para introduzir a pergunta, coloque a frase na forma afirmativa, mude os pronomes e o tempo verbal.

E.g.:

Direct: Anne, do you work at Microsoft?

Reported: Paul asked Anne if she worked at Microsoft.

2. Question Words: Use a “Question Word” para introduzir a pergunta, coloque a frase na forma afirmativa, mude os pronomes e o tempo verbal do verbo.

E.g.:

Direct: Martha, who is your best friend?

Reported: Jeff asked Martha who was her best friend.

Place And Time Reference In Reported Speech

No Reported Speech, referências de lugar e tempo são alteradas para refletir o novo contexto em que a ação ou fato original ocorreu.

Alterações de Tempo e Lugar:

1. Today → that day

Direct: I worked today. Reported: He said (that) he had worked that day.

2. Yesterday → The day before”.

Direct: I worked yesterday. Reported: He said (that) he had worked the day before.

3. The day before yesterday → Two days before

Direct: I worked the day before yesterday. Reported: He said (that) he had worked two days before.

4. Tomorrow → The next day / The following day

Direct: I will work tomorrow. Reported: He said (that) he would work the next day.

5. Now → Then

Direct: I am working now. Reported: He said (that) he was working then.

6. The day after tomorrow → Two days later

Direct: I will work the day after tomorrow. Reported: He said (that) he would work two days later.

7. Next week/month/year → The following week/month/year

Direct: I will work next week. Reported: He said (that) he would work the following week.

8. Last week/month/year → The previous week/month/year

Direct: I worked last week. Reported: He said (that) he had worked the previous week.

9. Ago → Before

Direct: I worked a week ago. Reported: He said (that) he had worked a week before.

10. This (for time) → That

Direct: I work this week. Reported: He said (that) he worked that week.

11. This/That (adjectives) → The

Direct: I like this tie. Reported: He said (that) he liked the tie.

12. Here → There

Direct: I work here. Reported: He said (that) he worked there.